The objective of this project is to identify the location and movement patterns of Asian citrus psyllids during their winter dormant period. We have previously identified potential overwintering sites based on management practices and surrounding landscape characteristics. Significantly more psyllids were captured in intermittently managed groves during the 2012/2013 and 2013/2014 winter season than in groves under any other management regime. We are currently testing the hypothesis that psyllids move to and ‘shelter’ in intermittently managed groves during winter months, and subsequently disperse in the spring. We have conducted movement studies using capture sticky traps set up at canopy height in concentric buffers surrounding groves to understand movement and directionality of psyllid populations within citrus growing areas. During the winter season of 2013/2014, we evaluated three local citrus area landscapes, each containing three differentially managed grove types; organic, conventional, and intermittent management. Psyllid abundance was evaluated using tap sampling, sticky trap sampling and vacuum insect collection methods. As in the previous year, psyllid abundance was associated with the type grove management conducted at each site. There was no evidence for psyllid movement between groves within our experimental areas. This experiment will continue into the spring season to assess whether movement between groves increases during the spring season. Initial results from this experiment suggest that survival of psyllids in groves is the main factor contributing to population densities in groves under differential management, rather than psyllid movement between groves.
Understanding the interactions between the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) Diaphorina citri and Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las), is key in identifying potential controls and management of citrus greening. Recently we found that exposure and pre-exposure to different temperature alters ACP acquisition and inoculation of Las. Thus, variable climatic conditions in Florida are likely to influence ACP transmission of Las. In addition, in cool temperatures ACPs exhibit altered coloration indicating up-regulation of melanization genes. This response is a typical insect response to fungal pathogens. In order to investigate the effect of melanization further, we are conducting fitness assays on melanized ACPs to determine how this change in morphology affects developments, longevity, and fecundity. We are also currently conducting qRT-PCR assays to quantify regulation of a number of heat shock proteins and melanization genes such as phenoloxidases and genes within the rhodopsin pathway. It is possible that expression of these genes may also play a role in ACP-Las interactions within the insects, and to this end we are currently conducting transmission assays on melanized ACP nymphs and adults. Experiments to assess ACP gene expression in response to simultaneous challenges of cool temperature and entomopathogenic fungi are underway. We expected these additional data will 1) identify potential targets for disrupting ACP vector competence, and 2) yield a better understanding of the potential for use of entomopathogenic fungi as an overwinter biocontrol agent of ACPs.
Based on results from the previous Contest Project (CRDF#400), eleven compounds have been screened by the contest committee as candidates for further research to determine their efficacy for control of HLB based on their ability to substantially reduce the titers of the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter in our grafted citrus assay, lack of phytotoxicity to citrus and potential for registration. After first evaluating combinations of these molecules using the graft-based chemotherapy method under a separate agreement, this project extension will evaluate these 11 compounds as control agents for the HLB bacterium individually and in combination using infected, container-grown citrus and HLB-affected scions. The objective of this project is to determine an optimum chemical formulation that may be registered for field control of HLB. In this quarter (Jan. 2014 to March, 2014),all graft-based tests have been done in 16 treatments of 11 compounds alone and in combination. Some treatments were effective in reducing the Las bacterium to undetectable levels by qPCR. However, some treatments had serious phytotoxicity to citrus, such as ACT and its combinations. We continued the third-round test of the potted-plant experiment including 72 treatments of 11 compounds and their combinations. Based on our delivery research, we changed the application from root-soaking to bark-application using nano formulation of the antimicrobial agents. No bacterium was detected in the new leaves but was present in the old leaves two months after treatment with some of the compounds. Six months after treatment, several treatments were effective in reducing the Las bacterium both in the new and the old leaves, especially SDX, AMP. The research is ongoing.
Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography – Pesticide Residue Analysis (Final Report) The purpose of this proposal was to purchase a LC-MS-MS in order to facilitate ongoing CRDF funded research requiring the analysis of pesticide residues in citrus leaf tissue. Funding provided by CRDF paid for a portion of this equipment which was cost-shared by UF-IFAS. The LC-MS-MS was delivered at setup in the Rogers’ lab at the Citrus Research & Education Center. Despite lengthy delays in getting the equipment to function properly due to installation of faulty parts, the LC-MS-MS is functional and is being used to meet the goals of other CRDF funded research projects. During the course of our method development period, we split research samples being analyzed for independent verification with the research labs of Bayer, Syngenta and Valent. Such interaction with these companies help use refine and perfect our methods being used for pesticide residue analysis. To date, the LC-MS-MS has been used to quantify parent compounds and metabolites of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and clothianidin in citrus nectar collected as part of CRDF funded projects. The goal of these nectar analyses is to support pesticide label changes needed to help protect young trees from becoming infected with HLB. Our results from this project have played an important role in a larger group effort which has resulted in changes in the Admire Pro label, for which a 24C SLN was granted to increase the annual rate of product applied from 0.5 lbs a.i. per acre to 1.0 lbs a.i. per acre, and Belay Insecticide which now has a bearing label permitting use for trees in the 5-9′ size class. This equipment will continue to be used in similar efforts and additional studies looking at maximizing the effectiveness of currently used pesticides for psyllid control.
We have continued this investigation by conducting a second year of replication. Specifically, we sampled Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) populations during the winter season at various heights within tress and with respect to the cardinal direction of trees within Florida citrus groves. We sampled two locations and each one was divided into two plots: one oriented north-south and the other east-west. For each plot, we sampled the citrus canopy at three different heights within trees and the four cardinal orientations within the grove using a custom-made, high powered insect vacuum sampler to collect ACP. Our goal was to develop a two dimensional picture of ACP distribution within citrus groves during winter. Hobo data loggers (which collect environmental data such as temperature) were placed at these various locations to correlate temperature and relative humidity with ACP distribution within groves. The data are currently still being analyzed. However, preliminarily, it appears that ACP populations were high within the groves sampled. We collected 2 psyllids per sample with a maximum sample with 33 psyllids per sample during our winter collections from individual portions of trees. We compared our results with those obtained and posted by personnel from USDA-APHIS that sampled the same plots for the CHMA project and who used the tap sampling method. While tap sampling conducted by USDA-APHIS did not find psyllids in these particular areas during February and March, we collected over 100 psyllids in a single day using the vacuum method in these areas.
One objective of this project is to determine how cold and heat acclimation and temperature-mediated gene expression influence Las transmission by Asian citrus psyllids (ACP). We previously reported that climatic conditions appear to influence the likelihood of Las transmission. Moreover, at some temperatures ACPs exhibit altered coloration indicating up-regulation of melanization genes. We continue to identify additional cryoptotective gene targets for quantification using qRT-PCR. Currently, qRT-PCR assays to quantify several heat shock protein and melanization genes expressed by psyllids under varying temperatures are ongoing. Understanding how cold and heat acclimation, and underlying temperature-mediated gene expression, influence transmission of Las should provide novel targets for managing transmission by ACP populations. We continue to develop isofemale lines of Wolbachia and Wolbachia-free psyllids derived from 10 distinct geographic locations in Florida. Currently, replicate isofemale lines from seven distinct regions of the state have been established. Additional collections will be conducted during the next month to establish additional psyllid lines. Phenotypic screening of isofemale lines is expected to begin in the next quarter. Recently, personnel have been hired by Handler to optimize rearing and egg collection protocols needed to support for germ-line transformation of ACP from these isofemale lines.
The objective of the current project is the identification of a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crystal toxin with basal toxicity against Asian Citrus Psyllid (ACP) and enhancement of this toxin by addition of an ACP gut binding peptide. A phage display library will be screened to identify peptides that bind to the gut of the ACP. Addition of the gut binding peptide to the Bt toxin will increase toxin binding and associated toxicity against the ACP. During the current reporting period partially purified Bt toxins from selected Bt strains provided by Dr. Michael Blackburn, USDA, Maryland were trypsin activated. Proteolytic activation of Bt toxins was carried out at Iowa State University. Briefly, Bt toxins were solubilized using sodium carbonate pH 10.5 + 10mM DTT for three to 16 h at 37’C and dialyzed against 50 mM Tris-Cl pH 8.5. Bt toxins were then incubated with bovine trypsin at a final concentration of 10% of the toxin concentration at 37 ‘C for 1 h. Removal of trypsin was carried out using benzamidine sepharose. The samples were boiled in denaturing SDS sample buffer for 5 min, separated on 10% (wt/vol) SDS/PAGE and stained with Coomassie blue. The SDS-PAGE profiles of trypsin-treated Bt toxins indicated the presence of two different toxin groups with different molecular mass protein bands in the protoxin samples. Samples in the first protoxin group consisted of one toxin band of ~39 kDa, while samples in the second protoxin group consisted of two protein bands of ~40 and ~38 kDa. In contrast, all Bt strains had a single toxin band of ~35 kDa in the trypsin activated state. Samples of 1.8 to 2.3 milligrams of five trypsin-activated Bt toxins were sent to Dr. David G. Hall, USDA-ARS for ACP membrane feeding assays for toxicity analysis.
The overall goal of this 3-year research project is to efficiently deliver antimicrobial molecules into citrus phloem against HLB bacteria. This quarter’s (from Jan. to April 2014) research continued to evaluate the penetrants based on our cuticle assay and to prepare the nano-formulations coupled with penetrant for foliar spray or bark-application. Zone of Inhibition Tests (Kirby-Bauer Test), one of the fast, qualitative assays, was used to measure the ability of nano formulations of antimicrobial agents coupled with the penetrant to inhibit the growth of microorganisms (bacillus subtilis). The chemicals penetrated easily in the cuticles from HLB-affected citrus and the old-mature leaves when compared to those from young cuticles; Nano-formulation of the antimicrobial agents coupled with penetrant significantly inhibited the growth of microorganisms. The ideal nano-formulation, based on the cuticle assay, has been applied to potted plants by bark-application of O/W and foliar spray of W/O. Compared to root-soaking application, nano-formulation promoted the uptake of the antimicrobial agents and resulted in the higher concentrations of antimicrobial agents in phloem for more 15 days. No Las bacterium was detected in any of the plants treated with Ampicillin using either the foliar or bark application nano formulation 6 months from the initial treatment. The future work will be focused on: 1) Continuing to optimize the final formulations by combinations of the penetrants and high drug loading capacity formulations; 2) Evaluating drug loading capacity using the optimized nano formulations; 3) Treating the HLB-affected citrus by foliar-spray and bark-application in the field.
Optimization of CLM pheromone trap deployment was evaluated at 3 densities (1 trap per acre, 1 trap per 3 acres and 1 trap per 5 acres). The total number of CLM captures was similar at all densities tested (F = 0.26; df = 2, 52; P = 0.77). CLM flight activity followed similar patterns among the three trap densities tested (1 trap per 0.40 ha and 1 trap per 1.21 ha: R = 0.93, P < 0.0001; 1 trap per 0.40 ha and 1 trap per 2.02 ha: R = 0.85, P < 0.0001; 1 trap per 1.21 ha and 1 trap per 2.02 ha: R = 0.89, P < 0.0001). These results showed that 1 trap per 5 acres is sufficient to obtain reliable moth counts upon which to base management decisions. A manuscript was submitted to the Journal of Economic Entomology. LD50 and LD80s for some commonly used insecticides for management of citrus pests in Florida were calculated for a susceptible CLM colony. These values are being used to evaluate possible resistance to the tested insecticides in CLM field populations. Larvae and adults from the susceptible colony were exposed for 48 h to different doses (0; 0.01; 0.03; 0.1; 0.3; 1; 3; 10; 30; 50; 100, 300, 600 and 1000 ppm) of the following insecticides: Actara 25WG, Agri-Mek 0.15EC, Cyazypyr, Danitol, Delegate WG, Dimethoate, Intrepid 2F and Micromite 80WGS. The following baselines have been obtained so far for their active ingredients against larvae: Actara (thiamethoxam) LD50=2.813 (CL95: 1.07-6.46) ppm, LD80=619.176 (CL95 199.10-3100.06) (n = 681; .2 = 3.81; d.f = 7; Heterogeneity = 0.76); Agri-Mek (abamectin): LD50= 0.097 ppm (CL95: 0.05-0.16), LD80=2.61 ppm (CL95: 1.41-6.04) (n = 743; .2 = 2.03; d.f = 5; Heterogeneity = 0.41); Cyazypyr (cyantraniliprole): LD50=49.55 ppm (CL95: 18.36-129.61), LD80=27,94 (CL95: 6,19.4-0,29E+06) ppm, (n = 1,021; .2 = 2.22; d.f = 5; Heterogeneity = 0.44); Delegate (spinetoram): LD50=3.56 (CL95: 0.16-20.92), LD80= 201.83 (CL95: 31.70-53761.1) ppm (n = 859; .2 = 19.43; d.f = 5; Heterogeneity = 3.88); for Dimethoate (dimethoate) LD50=1.56 ppm (CL95: 0.15-56.31) and LD80=497.45 ppm (CL95: 22.27-0.37E+09) (n = 546; .2 = 13.07; d.f = 6; Heterogeneity = 2.18); and Micromite (diflubenzuron): LD50=88.32 (CL95: 20.69-246.69) LD80=1800.5 ppm (CL95: 522.84-75810.00), (n = 714; .2 = 10.31; d.f = 5; Heterogeneity = 2.06). A different bioassay technique is being developed for Intrepid. After testing 309 larvae with Danitol, a dose of 600 ppm only resulted in larval mortality of 52%. Due to the high a.i. rates used and low mortality values, no higher doses will be tested with this product. LD50 and LD80 for Delegate, Intrepid and Micromite are being currently being estimated for adults (n = 487, n = 703, n = 381 individuals already tested respectively). CLM larvae were collected for testing from 5 commercial citrus groves with different ACP and CLM insecticide management programs: Bob Paul, Moreno Tanner Road, Silver Strand B9, Duda and PTG. Potential resistance to Agri-Mek in these field populations was assessed by obtaining mortality rates from exposure to the previously obtained LD80 for this product, 0.097 ppm. Larval mortalities thus obtained were 0.76 (n = 33), at Bob Paul, 0.76 (n = 44) Tanner Road, 0.70 (n = 80) at B9, 0.82 (n = 44) at Duda, and 0.80 (n = 50) at PTG. Thus, mortality In all cases was similar to that observed in the laboratory susceptible colony (0.80) indicating no measurable resistance to this product yet in the field populations tested. More individuals and sites will be tested for Agri-Mek and other insecticides this spring and summer.
This is one-year enhanced project of CRDF#584. The goal of this enhanced project is to evaluate the effective compounds, which were formulated for nano-emulsion delivery, in the field. This quarter (from Jan. 2014 to April 2014) research continued greenhouse tests and began field trials. The preliminary results from the greenhouse experiment showed that bark application of the O/W or foliar spray of the W/O were the best application methods to deliver the compound into phloem against Las bacterium, when compared to root-soaking. Nano-formulation of the effective compounds coupled with the screened penetrants increased the uptake of antimicrobial compounds. More than 30 HLB-affected citrus trees were pruned, fertilized and treated with the tested nano formulation of effective compounds in Dec. 2013. Two antimicrobial compounds were loaded into the nano formulation of W/O (Water in Oil) coupled with insecticide oil for foliar spray or O/W (Oil in Water) for bark application. Trunk injection and treatment without antimicrobials were used as controls. Each treatment was repeated for three times. Chemical treatment applications will be made every one month when flush is present starting with the spring flush in 2014. All trees involved in this experiment were confirmed to be Las-positive via a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay. ACP populations will be recorded by stem-tap sampling. Citrus effects of the treatments will be investigated, including: a) reduction in fruit drop; b) increased canopy density; c) reduced HLB symptoms; d) increased root uptake; e) residues and phytotoxicity. Las titers will be monitored via qPCR.
In order to speed up their application and registration for use by the citrus industry, this one-year enhancement project will immediately test these antimicrobial compounds in the field. The proposed research will focus on evaluating the efficiency of compounds against the Las bacterium in HLB-affected field citrus. In this quarter (Jan to March, 2014), we continued the field trial. The pruned trees were treated with six antimicrobial molecules that have been shown to be effective against Las in graft assays and potted plant experiments using three delivery methods. The treatments will be repeated once a month. The samples will be taken every two months and analyzed for Las and HLB disease. Phytotoxicity was observed in some of the trunk-injection treatments. In these cases, treatment was suspended. We will track this temporal phytotoxicity in next quarter. If the treated trees recovered normal growth in next quarter, we will continue the trunk-injection at lower concentration of the compounds.
Objectives: 1) scale up production of Tamarixia radiata to levels to better assess the potential impact an augmentation program may have on the ACP population and ultimately the spread of HLB, 2) genetic techniques to identify parasitoids, and 3) extend rearing technology to both private and public sectors. This year, 1.3 million T. radiata were produced between Southwest Florida Research and Education Center (SWFREC), Immokalee and Division of Plant Industry (DPI) facilities in Gainesville and Dundee, Florida. The colony of Florida strain maintained at SWFREC produced 231,300 wasps. An additional colony of the same strain and others from South China, Pakistan and North Vietnam maintained in Gainesville and Dundee produced 301,637, 305,718, 194,774 and 314,162 wasps, respectively. Wasps from these colonies were used for research, to maintain colonies, for release in conventional and organic citrus and to provide the Commonwealth of Dominica with a starter colony. The Dundee facility is now up to 100,000 wasps per month, with production is expected reach 3 million per year, thus enabling more releases and greater impact on psyllid populations. Releases were made in Collier, Lee and Hendry, Lake, Indian River, St. Lucie, Polk, Hardee, Alachua, and Hillsborough counties. Laboratory experiments showed that T. radiata fecundity increased to a maximum 12 eggs per day per female with increasing host density up at 40 nymphs per female wasp per day with no significant increases at higher densities. ACP populations have generally been low in iSW Florida so parasitism rates were evaluated on both feral populations and infested sentinel plants placed in the field. About 12,000 parasitoids were released between April and June in a 13-acre block of ‘Valenica’ in Collier Co. used to evaluate 4 treatments: insecticides, nutritionals, insecticides + nutritionals and untreated. Parasitism of feral nymphs reared from untreated plots averaged 17% in April with no more parasitism except for 3% in nutrition + insecticide treatment. Sentinel plants containing an average 54 nymphs each were hung in trees during June. Parasitism averaged 4% (0-33%) and 7%, (0-69%) in nutritional and untreated plots with releases, compared to 7% (0-31%) and 2% (0-8%), respectively, in plots without releases. Parasitism on sentinel plants averaged 20-22% in the untreated and nutritional treatments after 7,500 parasitoids were released in July. Only 3% feral nymphs collected from untreated and nutritional treatments were parasitized and none in the insecticidal treatments. Psyllid adults averaged below 0.2 per tap sample so insecticides were not used for 3 months prior to the evaluation. At SWFREC, 27,000 Tamarixia were released between April-June and parasitism averaged 0-18% in June in the blocks treated with insecticides. In July and August, 3,000 and 2,450 Tamarixia were released, respectively. In July, parasitism averaged 28% in the release block compared to 0.5 % in no release blocks. In August, parasitism increased to 38% in the release block compared to 17 % in no release blocks. Similar trends of parasitism were observed in fall mainly from young blocks producing new growth required for nymphal survival. In Hendry county, 8,800 Tamarixia were released Oct-Nov. Parasitism in the release and no release plots averaged 63% and 35%, respectively, in Oct and 38% and 54%, respectively, in Nov, indicating spread to no release areas. A large scale study evlauting biweekly mass release and respective control without release or insecticide interventions in three organic groves was initiated March 2014.
The main objective of this research is to determine both abiotic and biotic factors that regulate Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) acceptance of plants and pathogen transmission. The goal is to use this information to interfere with the vector’s capability of transmitting pathogen between citrus trees. We have identified a portion of the designated sequence of the CsSAMT gene involved in methyl-salicylate production in citrus. Following this discovery, we conducted an investigation to determine whether abundance of CsSAMT mRNA is correlated with expression of methyl-salicylate, as well as, ACP feeding. We exposed plants to feeding damage by 100 caged psyllids and compared the volatile profile of these plants 24h after psyllid infestation with uninfested control plants. We found that the amount of methyl-salicylate synthetized per leaf increased, as well as, the abundance of CsSAMT mRNA, suggesting that we identified the gene involved in methyl-salicylate production in citrus. This is an important step because methyl-salicylate has been identified as the major volatile driving attraction of the Asian citrus psyllid to HLB-infected citrus. We plan to test if this gene could be activated (1) by the infection by the CLAS pathogen, and (2) by priming of the plant with volatiles from adjacent infected plants. We also plan to investigate the expression of this gene depending of abiotic factors such as drought stress and ambient temperature. Regarding the field portion of this investigation, we plan to repeat the field experiment performed last year to better understand how abiotic and biotic factors may affect psyllid population growth. In the previous year, we observed that reset trees in groves consisting of a mixture of mature and reset trees suffered less psyllid infestation and HLB infection than reset trees planted within a grove solely composed of reset trees. To confirm these results we plan to repeat this experiment this year in two groves. Additionally, we aim to better understand the mechanism(s) causing these differences. The first hypothesis is that a grove plot that is only composed of reset trees receives more light per day than a plot mostly comprised of mature trees. To test this hypothesis, we will compare the population of psyllids on citrus trees next to wind break trees versus unprotected (no wind break) citrus trees on the edges of replicated groves. A second hypothesis that we are currently investigating is that volatile release by resets trees is modified depending on the environment surrounding trees. Specifically, we are focusing on whether the neighboring tree communicates with its neighbors via volatile release depending on infection status. The hypothesis is that infected plants may ‘prime’ uninfected plants to release volatiles that assist in plant protection. Our plan is to collect leaf volatiles in citrus plots that either consist of a contiguous replanting of immature citrus or within plots that contain a mixture of mature citrus and replants.
The objective of this research is to evaluate non-neurotoxic insecticides against Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), and suggest additional tools to growers for management of ACP. We are investigating those non-neurotoxic insecticides that have shown promise against insect pests similar to ACP. These additional tools may not only prove effective against ACP, but also could assist in ACP resistance management programs as needed tools for effective rotation with current insecticides. In this quarter, we have concentrated on small-plot field trials to evaluate two possible non-neurotoxic chemicals identified from laboratory studies for their effectiveness in reducing Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) populations. We compared tebufenozide (Confirm 2F), methoxyfenozide (Intrepid 2F ) with the commonly used neurotoxic insecticide imidacloprid (Provado 1.6 F) under field conditions. Plots consisting of four trees of ‘Hamlin’ sweet oranges were sprayed on April 29, 2014 with Intrepid 2F at 16 oz per acre, Confirm 2F at 16 oz per acre, Provado 1.6F at 20 oz per acre or an untreated control plot. The plots were replicated four times. At 3, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days post-treatment, the adult ACP population was estimated by taking 10 tap counts on the four trees in each plot. At the same time, 10 flush were removed from the trees and the nymphal population ranked with 0=no nymphs, 1=1-5 nymphs, 2=6-10 nymphs and 3=< 10 nymphs. There were no significant differences in the population of adult ACP after treatment with Confirm 2F and Intrepid 2F as compared with the untreated control, whereas provado significantly reduced the adult population as compared with the control. Intrepid 2 F resulted in the highest reduction of nymphs followed by Provado, and then confirm as compared with the control. Therefore, these insect growth regulators do appear to have field activity against ACP immature stages. Additionally, we are in the process of evaluating novaluron in the field at rates of 10 oz per acre and 20 oz per acre.
Since the last report, we have completed three trials to evaluate different formulations of imidacloprid. This research objective is in response to grower questions about the consistency of different imidacloprid formulations at a time when there are multiple generic products available. The trials were conducted in commercial citrus groves – one trial on minneola tangelos in the Coachella Valley, and two trials on grapefruits at separate locations in Riverside County. We have completed 3 years of trials where we evaluated the uptake of clothianidin (formulated as Belay and applied with a 1% NIS) applied by soil drench and trunk spray. The results of the 2011 trials were very promising, whereas the results of the 2012 trials showed no residues in the trees. We have now completed a third trial at Lindcove Research and Extension Center. Both the soil drench and trunk spray applications at a single timing were compared and found to be ineffective as means of administering the insecticide into the trees. In 2014, we hope to address issues with imidacloprid uptake in lemons in Ventura County. We have previously shown that the uptake of imidacloprid is inefficient on the heavy clay soils in this area. Irrigation seems to be a contributing factor in the poor uptake due to the long periods between each irrigation event. We will work with growers to investigate how shortening the frequency between irrigation events, particularly in the weeks immediately after the applications, might improve the uptake. In addition to investigations with imidacloprid, we also plan to evaluate the uptake of thiamethoxam. Thiamethoxam is a neonicotinoid insecticide that has greater water solubility than imidacloprid. With shortened frequencies between irrigations, it may be possible to get better uptake with this insecticide.
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